In addition, the topic of “Death and Dying” is usually addressed after late adulthood since overall, the likelihood of dying increases in later life (though individual and group variations exist). The study of development traditionally focused almost exclusively on the changes occurring from conception to adolescence and the gradual decline in old age; it was believed that the five or six decades after adolescence yielded little to no developmental change at all. Culture is an extremely important context for human development and understanding development requires being able to identify which features of development are culturally based. Each perspective encompasses one or more theories—the broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.

Of course, there is a certain discomfort in thinking about death, but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance that can come from studying death and dying. However, many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured in Figure 8 who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age). In contrast, theorists who view development as discontinuous believe that development takes place in unique stages and that it occurs at specific times or ages. It describes cognitive development through four distinct stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal.Learning that occurs when a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences. Wherever you are in your own lifespan developmental journey, imagine yourself as an elderly person about to turn 100 years old (becoming a “centenarian”). It seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. Peers become more important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups become more common.

Consequently, the stories provided are rich and well-rounded and the theories and findings can be part of a collaborative effort to understand human lives. The type of parenting the child receives has a very powerful impact on the child’s personality development. In l ifespan development, we need to rely on a systematic approach to understanding behavior, based on observable events and the scientific method. His interest lay in children’s knowledge, their thinking, and the qualitative differences in their thinking as it develops.Another context that influences our lives is our social standing, socioeconomic status, or social class.

The text emphasizes theories and their use in helping us understand development, focuses on the interplay of nature and nurture in development, and also provides an expansive examination of both biological and sociocultural influences on life-span development. As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. Throughout this course, we will describe observations during development, then examine how theories provide explanations for why these changes occur.Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar (and some different) developmental issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce, remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great grandparents, retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying. Cognitive change is noticeable when we compare how 6-year olds, 16-year olds, and 46-year olds think and reason, for example. Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (Figure 2). The term “ecological” refers to a natural environment; human development is understood through this model as a long-lasting transformation in the way one perceives and deals with the environment.

Other developmental theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Think of theories are guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that required assembly.Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment (Diamond, 2009; Lobo, 2008). The scientific study of children began in the late nineteenth century and blossomed in the early twentieth century as pioneering psychologists sought to uncover the secrets of human behavior by studying its development. Psychologist Erik Erikson suggests that we struggle with issues of trust, independence, and intimacy at various points in our lives (we will explore this thoroughly throughout the course. These mesosystems both influence and are influenced by the larger contexts of the community, referred to as the exosystem.