The standard medical use of opium persisted well into the 19th century. US president William Henry Harrison was treated with opium in 1841, and in the American Civil War, the Union Army used 175,000lb (80,000kg) of opium tincture and powder and about 500,000 opium pills. [1] During this time of popularity, users called opium "God's Own Medicine". [36]

Habighorst, Ludwig V., Reichart, Peter A., Sharma, Vijay, Love for Pleasure: Betel, Tobacco, Wine and Drugs in Indian Miniatures (Koblenz: Ragaputra Edition, 2007) Opium Factories of Bihar – Bihargatha". Bihargatha.in. Archived from the original on September 10, 2011 . Retrieved October 7, 2011. Zhang, Sarah (January 9, 2019). "Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth". The Atlantic . Retrieved May 10, 2020.

Hamarneh Sami (1972). "Pharmacy in medieval Islam and the history of drug addiction". Medical History. 16 (3): 226–237. doi: 10.1017/s0025727300017725. PMC 1034978. PMID 4595520. a b c M J Brownstein (June 15, 1993). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (12): 5391–5393. Bibcode: 1993PNAS...90.5391B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.12.5391. PMC 46725. PMID 8390660. Michot, Yahya. L’opium et le café. Traduction d’un texte arabe anonyme et exploration de l'opiophagie ottomane (Beirut: Albouraq, 2008) ISBN 978-2-84161-397-7

Giving up opium after using it for a long time is challenging because the body must get used to functioning without it. Withdrawing from opium is similar to withdrawing from other opioid drugs. Heroin is classified as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 and as such has no acceptable medical use in the United States. John Richards (May 23, 2001). "Opium and the British Indian Empire" . Retrieved September 24, 2007. A little of it, taken as much as a grain of ervum is a pain-easer, and a sleep-causer, and a digester...but being drank too much it hurts, making men lethargical, and it kills.

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Julius Berendes (1902). "De Materia Medica" (in German). Archived from the original on February 8, 2007 . Retrieved May 10, 2007. Opium contains 50 different alkaloid opiates. The most common metabolism of opiates is to be ultimately converted to morphine which is further converted to morphine-3,6-diglucuronide. 16 Opioids are metabolized vastly by the enzyme CYP 2D6 and any mutation in this kind of enzyme or coadministration with drugs that interfere with this enzyme may generate a change in the metabolism speed. 18 For years, because of this metabolism pathway, it was very hard to differentiate between illicit heroin users and involuntary exposure to poppy seeds. The original tests for this differentiations were based in the presence of morphine in urine without evidence of 6-monoacetylmorphine. Now it is known the presence of a glucuronide metabolite only in the consumption of heroin called ATM4G and this allows a clear differentiation of the consumption of illegal heroin and poppy seed ingestion. 6

Huxtable RJ, Schwarz SK: The isolation of morphine--first principles in science and ethics. Mol Interv. 2001 Oct;1(4):189-91. [ Article] Peter Dale Scott, Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 Nov. 2010, Volume 8 | Issue 44 | Number 2, "Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬 Between 400 and 1200 CE, Arab traders introduced opium to China, and to India by 700. [19] [1] [12] [20] The physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi of Persian origin ("Rhazes", 845–930 CE) maintained a laboratory and school in Baghdad, and was a student and critic of Galen; he made use of opium in anesthesia and recommended its use for the treatment of melancholy in Fi ma-la-yahdara al-tabib, "In the Absence of a Physician", a home medical manual directed toward ordinary citizens for self-treatment if a doctor was not available. [21] [22]

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Dikötter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun. Narcotic culture: a history of drugs in China Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004. Lee S, Park Y, Han E, Choi H, Chung H, Oh SM, Chung KH: Thebaine in hair as a marker for chronic use of illegal opium poppy substances. Forensic Sci Int. 2011 Jan 30;204(1-3):115-8. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.05.013. Epub 2010 Jun 16. [ Article] Max Chamka; Translated by Geraldine Ring. "3 grams of opium for 1 dollar". Caucaz europenews . Retrieved May 6, 2007. Stephen Harding; Lee Ann Olivier & Olivera Jokic. "Victorians' Secret: Victorian Substance Abuse". Archived from the original on May 31, 2007 . Retrieved May 2, 2007.